The Agora: Dedicated to Ancient Ideals

Skeptical Guide to Rational Enquiry

Ancient Skepticism was first propounded by Pyrrho (~360 BC - ~270 BC). Pyrrho argued that we can know appearances, but that we can't truly know the reality that underlies appearance. Pyrrho left no writings, but his student, Timon, provides many fragmentary pieces from his prolific career.

Most of our knowledge of Ancient Skepticism comes from a much later author, Sextus Empiricus (2nd Century AD). His Outlines of Pyrrhonism (see below) gives the best presentation of Ancient Skepticism that we have.

"...tranquility follows on suspension of judgment..."
--Sextus Empiricus

Ancient Skeptics did not deny that truth could be ascertained, they simply denied that they themselves knew the truth. This suspension of judgment was meant to induce peace of mind.

Pyrrhonists challenged ‘beliefs’by proposing contrasting ‘appearances’: when you assert that the tower is round, I point out that it does not appear round from a distance. To sustain your belief, you must propose a criterion that shows why it is correct. Since these criteria, in turn, can be challenged, your attempt to defend your view can only lead to a regress of criteria or go round in a circle, unless you stubbornly insist upon a criterion that you cannot support. If this picture of the structure of challenging beliefs is correct, it seems that you will not be able to avoid admitting that the matter is not settled. (Oxford Companion to Philosophy 2005)

According to Timon, Pyrrho declared that things are equally indifferent, unmeasurable and inarbitrable. For this reason neither our sensations nor our opinions tell us truths or falsehoods. Therefore for this reason we should not put our trust in them one bit, but should be unopinionated, uncommitted and unwavering, saying concerning each individual thing that it no more is than is not, or both is and is not, or neither is nor is not. The outcome for those who actually adopt this attitude, says Timon, will be first speechlessness [aphasia], and then freedom from disturbance; and Aenesidemus says pleasure.
--Aristocles

Skepticism is not a rarified philosophy but one that is meant to be lived and to bring happiness and peace of mind.

The basic Sceptical strategy is to argue that the sorts of assertion dogmatists make are supposed to be inferred from elementary data such as sense-perceptions. But, the Sceptics argue, these claims are only warranted if the data entail them. Various arguments—the so-called ‘Sceptical tropes’—can be employed to show that the supposed entailment is illusory. In effect, the only evidence a Sceptic will allow is entailing evidence. On this basis, one is no more justified in accepting the dogmatists' claims than their opposite. So, the only rational response is to say ‘I no more accept p than its opposite’, whatever claim p might express. What is the supposed result of being thus disposed to the dogmatists' claims? Tranquility of mind and an absence of anxious attention to putatively life-enhancing knowledge. (Oxford Companion to Philosophy 2005)

Primary Sources:

Sextus Empiricus Outlines of Pyrrhonism

Cicero The Nature of the Gods

The Skeptics:

Pyrrho of Elis 360-270 BCE: Founder of the Pyrrhonian school or Skepticism. He taught that man cannot attain truth, all beings are subject to continuous renewal, so one can know nothing but appearances. The wise man attains freedom from trouble following apparances without proclaiming them true.

Timon of Phlius 315-225 BCE: Student of Pyrrho, it is fragments of his writings through which we know Pyrrho.

Arcesilas of Pitane 315-241 BCE: Founded the Middle Academy. None of his writings survive. He promoted absolute Skepticism. "We know nothing, not even our own ignorance."

Carneades of Cyrene 213-129 BCE: Skeptic founder of the New Academy he was a major opponent of Stoic epistemology.

Clitomachus, 157-110 BCE: Student of Carneades he succeeded him at the Academy.

Aenesidemus 100-140 CE: Skeptic philosopher born at Knossos in Crete and taught at Alexandria.

Sextus Empiricus c. 160-210 CE: The prinipal and most impartial historian of Skepticism.

Most of the texts contained on this site are public domain. Site layout, all original content, created by John Trapp ©2001